Environmental Psychology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6175 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1. Place theory Place is used as a manner of examining the environment and breaking the environment down into conceptual components. It is difficult to examine space and environment as they are too general. To understand the concept of environmental psychology, one would firstly have to establish the meaning of place theory as peoples interaction with their physical environment is a principal in environmental psychology. The place theory has three aspects that are interlinked with each other (see figure 1). These three aspects are physical attributes, conceptions and human activities. According to Canter (1997) a place is a state of harmony created by the dialogue between human activities, conceptions and the physical attributes of the environment viewed from a historical perspective. However, Castello (2006) states that place is a unit where human experiences and physical form are fused together, creating a unitary context. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Environmental Psychology" essay for you Create order The physical attributes of the place theory demonstrates the surroundings or environment in which a person finds himself, such as a bedroom, an office etc. A geographer, Edward Relph (1976), has a similar notion of place but replaced Canters (1997) aspect of conceptions with experiences. Thus, allowing more information to be gathered about the place as experiences are a result of an individuals history and everyday life. The types of human activities and the way in which it is carried out are contingent on factors such as knowledge, cultural background, values, as well as formal and informal controls (Ndubisi, 2002). As a result, the place theory suggests that places are viewed as holistic units of activities, physical form and meaning shaped by the goals and purposes of individuals. The place theory also works in concurrence with place identity and place attachment. Many researchers explore this dynamic relationship between people and place. Place identity and place attachment are concepts that demonstrate the significant relations between a person and place. Moreover, when individuals interact with their environment, they create bonds and links and their environment develops meaning. 1.1 Place identity There are many factors that shape human identity, and identity is (among other things) a product of the psychical environment (Hauge, 2007). Dixon and Durrheim (2000) state that a key moment in environmental psychologys critique of a disembodied notion of identity was the publication of Proshansky, Fabian, and Kaminoffs paper on place identity. Place identity, according to Proshansky (1987), can be defined as: a sub-structure of the self-identity of the person consisting of broadly conceived cognitions about the physical world in which individuals live. Pretty et al (2003) state that place identity is a cognitive structure which contributes to global self-categorisation and social identity processes. According to Knez (2005): Breakwell (1986, 1992, 1993), Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996), Twigger-Ross et al (2003), and Vignoles (2000) has suggested four processes related to place identity: place-related distinctiveness (e.g. I am a South African) place-referent continuity (e.g. I am living there because it reminds me of my past) place-related self-esteem (e.g. I am proud to live in this town) place-related self-efficacy (e.g. The town satisfies my needs and wants) Consequently, these processes encourage our self-esteem and identity as individuals. Hence the questions of who we are are often intimately related to questions of where we are (Dixon Durrheim 2000; Pretty et al 2003). The places people belong to does not just encourage their self-esteem but also their environmental preferences, and how they see themselves. Place identity could also lead to place attachment because when an individual identifies himself with the environment, individuals tend to feel attached to the same environment. 1.2 Place attachment Every single one of us has developed an unconscious bond towards some place over a period of time. It is suggested by Inalhan and Finch (2004) that the concept of place attachment is complex and multi-faceted, as place attachment has been studied by scholars from several disciplines such as; anthropology, architecture, family and consumer studies, folklore, gerontology, landscape architecture, psychology and urban planning. Place attachment can vary from place to place and can change easily depending on the degree of belonging of the person (Knez 2005). Thus, the degree of attachment a person has towards a place may determine the perceptions and satisfaction of the person in the specific place. Our attachment to a place grows with length of time living in a place and age, but mostly through positive interaction with a community. According to Milligan (1998) place attachment could be defined as: place attachment occurs when a particular interaction was accompanied by significant meaning However place attachment, according to Knez (2005), can be defined as: the affective positive bond between a person and a place; more specifically, a strong tendency of that person to maintain closeness to such a place. Many studies and researchers show that there is no single accepted definition of place attachment. The definition offered by Milligan (1998) serves a better purpose for this study. From this definition it is clear that place attachment is an emotional bond formed by an individual to a physical setting due to the meaning given to the location through processes of person-environment interactions (Casakin Kreitler, 2008). According to Halpenny (2005), one of the factors that could play a role in the formation of place attachment is satisfaction with a place. Moreover, if individuals are satisfied with their environments they tend to protect that place more and return to it. Payton (2003) and Warzecha et al (2000) state that place attachment has two main concepts that have been prevalent in literature: functional place attachment and emotional place attachment. Functional place attachment refers to the functionality or the ability of the resources to meet the needs or goals of individuals. Furthermore, functional place attachment is also closely linked to the kind of activities users pursue. This is because some activities are more complex and require specific aspects while other activities are more general. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) suggest that functional attachment is also referred to as place dependence. The concept is affected by two factors (Shumaker Taylor, 1983): The quality of place is determined by the individuals satisfaction and, The quality of the place depends on how it compares to other available places. Emotional place attachment refers to the emotional attributes of a person-place relationship and how place contributes to an individuals identity. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) declare that emotional attachment is also referred to as symbolic attachment. Moreover, emotional place attachment can be based on emotional ties to a specific place and is formed over a certain period through many encounters with the environment. According to Warzecha et al (2000), emotional place attachment may also be expressed as an identity with a symbolic meaning or idea. Place theory and all its aspects mentioned above form a fundamental starting point for any study in environmental psychology. 2. Introduction to Environmental psychology There are numerous people who do not know what environmental psychology is and what it consists of. Traditionally, environmental psychology has focused on the interrelationship between environments and human behaviour (De Young, 1999; Garling Golledge, 1993). According to Gifford (1997) individuals change the environment and their behaviour and experiences are changed by the environment. Furthermore, each individuals behaviour and experience is unique and differs from the person standing next to him/her in the same environment. These environments could be natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments (Veith Arkkelin, 1995). Environmental psychology also consists of environmental psychological-processes in terms of a clear social-psychological perspective (Bonnes, 2003). These processes are individual processes such as perception, cognition and personality, and social processes such as territoriality, personal space, crowding and privacy. In addition, environmental psychology has continual elements that help to define this relatively unknown field. According to Garling and Golledge (1993), Kaplan and Kaplan (1982) these elements are: Attention Understanding an individuals behaviour begins with understanding how he/she notices and perceives the environment. This includes two types of stimuli: those that unwillingly, even distractingly, demand human notice, as well as those places, things or ideas to which humans must willingly, and with endeavour direct their awareness. Re-establishing and enhancing the individuals competence to willingly express his/her attention is a major factor in maintaining human effectiveness in an environment. Perception and cognitive maps How people perceive the natural and built environment has been an important aspect of environmental psychology. Information is memorised in the brain as spatial networks which is known a cognitive maps. This information links experiences with an individuals perception of current actions, ideas and emotions. It is through these spatial networks that individuals recognize and perceive the environment, plan and conduct these plans. Ideal environments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" People have a tendency to look for places where they feel self-assured and competent, where they can familiarise themselves with the environment whilst also being engaged with it. Research has extended the concept of environmental psychology to embrace unity (a sense that things in the environment work together) and legibility (the assumption that an individual can walk around in an environment without being lost) as contributors to environmental understanding. To investigate an environment and to engage in it requires that the environment has complexity (that it has enough information and diversity to make it worth learning about) and mystery (the expectation of acquiring more information about an environment). Maintaining, re-establishing and developing an ideal environment enhances an individuals sense of well being and behavioural effectiveness in a person. Environmental stress and managing Research has recognized various behavioural and cognitive results including poor physical health, reduced selflessness and weaknesses, as well as paying no attention to the environment. Individuals can adjust their physical or social surroundings to create a more supportive environment (e.g. smaller scaled settings, territories, privacy, personal space) where they can supervise the course of information or stress inducing stimuli. Individuals can also seek to understand or make sense of circumstances as a way to resolve its stressful effects, often sharing these interpretations with other individuals as a part of their culture. Involvement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Environmental psychology is dedicated to improve an individuals participation in environmental design. It is focused not only on promoting an individuals understanding of environmental issues but on ensuring their early and actual participation in the design, adjustment and organisation of environments. Protective behaviour à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Environmental psychology has also played a key role in conveying psychological awareness to abide by the matter of developing an ecologically protracting society. The field also investigates environmental attitudes, perceptions and principles as well as planned involvement techniques for promoting environmentally appropriate behaviour. These continual elements form an essential part in an individuals perception of their environment as well as what to expect in that environment. Gifford (1997) states that environmental psychology is also studied at three levels of analysis. The first level of analysis sorts and arranges each individuals occurrence of the environment according to perceptions, cognition and personality. The next level of analysis is the collective organisation of space, which consists of four aspects namely; personal space, territory, crowding and privacy. The last level of analysis is the physical settings in which individuals find themselves every day. 2.1 Level of analysis 2.1.1 Perceptions, cognition and personality As previously mentioned, individuals form certain perceptions of their environment and surroundings. According to Veith and Arkkelin (1995), perception is one of the most basic and fundamental psychological processes in which humans engage. In addition Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) also state that perceptions are highly cognitive, which means that all environments carry a set of meanings acquired through their specific attributes. Consequently, these meanings are established from the environment by the perceiver with reference to his or her personal beliefs, values and attitudes. Furthermore, Bechtel et al (2002) point out that the forming of perceptions of a physical setting is associated with a molecular approach to the spatial-physical environment. This means that it places specific attention on the discrete sensory-perceptual features of the environment. According to Bell et al (2005) the term sensory-perceptions has been applied to relatively straightforward activity of human senso ry systems in reacting to a simple stimuli and forming a perception of the particular environment. According to Bonnes et al (1995) the term environmental perception is also often used interchangeably with environmental image, mental map and cognitive map. However, according to Bell et al (2005) cognitive maps refer to a mental framework that holds some representation for the spatial arrangement of the physical environment. Furthermore, Salmi (2002) states that wayfinding and cognitive mapping are inseparable, and most humans carry many cognitive maps in their heads. Therefore, cognitive maps assist individuals with another aspect of environmental psychology namely; wayfinding. Wayfinding according to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) can be defined as the ability to navigate successfully through the environment. However, wayfinding according to Passini (1984) can be defined as the ability to identify ones location and arrive at destinations in the environment, both cognitively and behaviourally. Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) suggests that wayfinding can not be predicted in humans as different factors; internal and external, come into play. Internal factors include aspects of each individual, such as, gender, familiarity with the environment and the types of strategies the person uses to navigate through the environment (HÃÆ' ¶lscher et al 2006 and Spiers Maguire 2008). External factors include aspects of the physical setting, such as, the density of the built environment, the availability of meaningful landmarks, and the pattern of the streets and intersections as well as staffed information booths (Salmi 2002). HÃÆ' ¶lscher et al (2006; 2009) identified three wayfinding strategies that are used to support route choice decisions in three dimensional multi-level buildings. Firstly, the central point strategy as sticking oneself, as much as possible, to main hallways and main places in the building, especially if the individual is unfamiliar with the building. Secondly, the direction strategy of deciding on routes that leads towards the horizontal position of the goal as directly as possible, irrespective of changes in different levels. Thirdly, the hierarchically organised navigation plan strategy. This strategy is based on cognitively sectioning the building into areas which guide navigation decisions. However, Spiers and Maguire (2008) identified their own wayfinding strategies that assist individuals with their wayfinding experience. Least-angle strategy suggests that paths are chosen that minimise deviation from the angle pointing directly to the goal. Fine-to-coarse strategy proposes that routes are planned in fine detail in the currently occupied region, but only coarsely when planning navigation between regions. Least-decision-load strategy implies that individuals will often choose the path with the least number of possible decision points. As stated above, environmental psychology and the physical environment are influenced through wayfinding in a building, cognitive maps as well as perceptions of the environment. Another aspect that influences environmental psychology is personality of an individual. Gifford (1997) pointed out that there are five reasons why personality is an important part in environmental psychology. These five reasons are: Personality is strongly linked to the physical environment; Information of a persons personality helps us to comprehend and foretell environmentally relevant behaviour; Individuals have dispositions that are particularly related to person-environment transactions; Personal dispositions are an essential aspect to one of environmental psychologys most important concepts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" environmental compatibility; The notion of personality can be applied to places instead of people. Bonnes et al (1995) agree with Gifford (1997) on the third reason. They suggest that personality and the environment are related to the disposition of individuals. 2.1.2 Collective organisation of space Spatial organisation or organisation of space is considered the first major component in wayfinding design because it not only defines the wayfinding problems of future users, but also affects the ease or difficulty users will experience in comprehending and cognitively mapping the setting (Passini, 1984). According to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) spatial orientation tasks are influenced by the familiarity of the environment. Furthermore, Iachini et al (2009) state that unfamiliar participants learn the environment through a map, whereas familiar participants rely on their long term experiences with the environment. According to Salmi (2002) there are key points to look out for in organisation of space. These points include: Architectural features in the building define different areas such as hallways, staircases etc. which assist the user with orientation in the building and increase the cognitive experience; Make sure that large-scale buildings have destination zones, such as an atrium, since it would assist the user to retrace his/her own path; Establish spatial overview opportunities so that a visitor can visualise a buildings design from different vantage points as it helps individuals to build a improved cognitive map; Consider the design of the building as a whole, the layout should not be confusing or allow visitors to get lost easily. 2.1.3 Physical settings According to Salmi (2002) physical settings must accommodate an increasingly, diverse population as it is critical that the setting be designed to be as inclusive and universally accessible as possible, addressing the requirements of a wide range of physical, sensory and cognitive abilities and needs. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) state that any number of behaviours can occur within any physical setting. Moreover, Bell et al (2005) declare that physical settings both facilitate and constrains or limits the behaviour that occurs in it. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) added that attitude towards an environment will influence a persons behaviours such as littering and attachment to the place. With environmental psychology being such a diverse field with many different aspects, the interactions between the four phenomenons (privacy, crowding, territoriality and personal space) help to address problems associated with environmental psychology. Gifford (1997) also states that environmental psychology is aimed at making buildings more humane and improving our relationship with the natural environment. 3. Privacy Privacy is an important phenomenon that each individual wants to achieve on a daily basis. There are many laws that have been established regarding individuals privacy, such as the right to privacy. Thus allowing individuals to have their own level of privacy. The level of privacy is measured in relation to the other social processes of environmental psychology namely; personal space, territoriality and crowding (Gifford 1997; Veitch and Arkkelin 1995, Bonnes et al 1995). In addition, according to Harris et al (1995) and Altman (1975) people use complex combinations of verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal and spatial mechanisms to attain a desired level of contact and degree of privacy. Faulkner et al (1994) state that the level of privacy is physical (sleeping, dressing) and psychological (for development and renewal). According to Demirbas and Demirkan (2000), the definition of privacy varies for each individual due to the different personal characteristics, cultural backgrounds, sex, age, economical, educational and social backgrounds. Ding (2008) defines privacy as the personal control over interactions and/or communications with others. However, Gritzalis et al (2009) state that privacy can generally be defined as the right to be left alone, meaning that it represents a sphere where it is possible to remain separate from others, anonymous and unobserved. Therefore, it is evident that privacy refers to the manner in which individuals control or regulate other individuals access to themselves. However privacy does not necessary mean withdrawing from people (Pederson, 1999; Marshall, 1972), instead it involves controlling the amount and type of contact one has with others. Gifford (1997) further declares that it is not easy to assess privacy because of its complex nature; as it has been measured in terms of preference, behaviour, need and expectation of each individual. Bonnes et al (1995) also state that the major interest of empirical research has been to study and measure the more strictly motivational and evaluative aspects such as; needs, expectations and values that individuals variously associate with privacy. Harris et al (1995) state that the universal aspects of privacy regulations are suggested by the apparent relationship between privacy, place attachment and quality of life. Cassidy (1997) pointed out that not everyone will react in the same way with regard to privacy. According to Altman (1975) and Westin (1970) there are certain characteristics that influence privacy such as: Individuals need for privacy is a continuing dynamic of changing internal and external conditions External and internal conditions are affected by privacy achieved Individuals effort to control privacy may be unsuccessful at some times Privacy can take different forms as it has many dimensions. 3.1 Types of privacy Demirbas and Demirkan (2000) also state that there are four types of privacy namely; solitude, reserve, anonymity and intimacy. Solitude refers to being alone and unobserved by others, which is either a neutral or desirable condition. Reserve, in turn, means that individuals form barriers between themselves and their environments which regulate intrusion. Anonymity is a type of privacy that gives individuals a chance to move around in a public environment without other people recognising them. Intimacy refers to an individuals aspiration to encourage close personal relationships with only preferred individuals. Additionally, Pederson (1999) identifies two more types of privacy; intimacy with family (being alone with family) and intimacy with friends (being alone with friends). According to Harris et al (1995) social functions of privacy and privacy regulation are central to psychological well-being. Privacy regulation refers to selective control over access to the self or to ones group (Altman 1975). Thus, making it clear that regulation of the types of privacy, mentioned above, is a function of both personal and situational factors. Personal factors refer to the individuals need for privacy, personal attractiveness, interpersonal skills, personality variables and ability to utilise privacy control mechanisms (Pederson, 1999). Situational factors may be social or physical. Social factors are presence, willingness and personal characteristics of others who have the potential for social interaction. Physical factors entail aspects such as barriers, location, layout and distances (Pederson, 1999). 3.2 Benefits and functions of privacy The psychological benefits of privacy reflect the function of privacy. Privacy supports social interaction which, in turn, affects our competence to deal with our world, which affects our self-definition (Altman, 1975). Therefore, the benefits of privacy arise from achieving its functions. According to Margulis (2005) the benefits of privacy are: Privacy is a basis for the development of identity, Privacy protects personal autonomy, Privacy supports healthy functioning by providing needed opportunities to relax, to ones self, to emotionally vent, to escape from the stresses of daily life, to manage bodily and sexual functions and to cope with loss, shock, and sorrow. However Keenan (2005) identifies other categories that capture the kinds of benefits privacy holds for people: Natural and psychological benefits: privacy provides physical, psychological and spiritual benefits to individuals. Individuals have certain needs, such as security and connectedness, that they want to satisfy, but invasion of privacy destroys ones sense of connectedness; Creative benefits: many people see privacy as conductive to creativity. Individuals have the need to have their own rooms where they are away from other people and regulate their privacy; Protective benefits: this refers to physical invasion of individuals sense of being safe and secure such as, the protection of ones home from burglary; Social benefits: individuals have the ability to regulate their own invasion of privacy and allow people they know or do not know to invade that privacy on a social basis; Democratic benefits: privacy is self-determining à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" each individual has the right to be left alone. According to Veitch snd Arkkelin (1995) the functions of privacy are: the achievement of a self-identity and the management of interactions between oneself and the social environment. According to Margulis (2005), privacy is important because it provides us with experiences that support normal psychological functioning, stable interpersonal relationships, and personal development. 3.3 Achieving privacy in design Individuals have a definite desire to a certain level of privacy in their homes. Privacy, in an architectural manner, can be defined as; the ability of individuals and families to lead their own lives without either interfering à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" or being interfered by the lives of others (Goodchild 1997). According to Faulkner et al (1994) a home provides privacy from outsiders with walls that protect the individual from physical, visual and various degrees of acoustical intrusion. Furthermore, Goodchild (1997) identifies three types of privacy in designing a house, whether in the house or outside the house: Firstly, privacy means circumventing problems with neighbours. Problems could arise when the layout of the resident and the type of housing is not correct such as; the walls of the enclosed area of each persons house are not high enough, which influences privacy. Secondly, privacy means a sense of seclusion. It means freedom from overlooking and freedom form invasive noise. This could be achieved by using noise insulation techniques and higher walls to increase space between neighbours. Thirdly, privacy means freedom from disturbance from other people, either guests or members of the same family, within the home. The level of privacy inside the home is determined by the number of different rooms in relation to the family size. Faulkner et al (1994) also states that the floor plan sets the privacy levels at which the home functions such as; open floor plan or closed floor plan. 3.4 Mechanisms of privacy Four aspects of privacy regulation mechanisms have been identified through data by Westin (1970) and Kent (1993). Firstly, privacy controls provide standards of behaviour for individuals and groups. Secondly, privacy creates an option between isolation and interaction, and can create the perception of being by yourself. Thirdly, individuals, groups, and societies tend to enter the privacy of others; curiosity is an example of this aspects. Fourthly, as society moves form primeval to contemporary, the physical and psychological opportunities for privacy increase. According to Bonnes et al (1995) and Altman (1975) personal space and territorial behaviour are used by individuals primarily to regulate privacy and to maintain their openness/closedness towards others at optimal levels. Additionally, Harris et al (1996) suggest that when individuals are confronted with negative privacy experiences, they will use a variety of privacy regulation mechanisms including verbal and nonverbal behaviours, cognitive, environmental, temporal and cultural mechanisms. Altman (1975) further suggests that the effectiveness and ease of implementing privacy regulation mechanisms may vary considerably across individuals and across social, physical and temporal context. Consequently, by combining these mechanisms individuals can efficiently express their needed level of privacy to others in order to attain the optimal level of privacy. Altman (1975) developed a framework for understanding the mechanisms of privacy regulation. This framework can be used as a summary of all of the above mentioned aspects of privacy (see figure 2). This figure indicates that privacy is a central concept that links the different phenomenons of environmental psychology (personal space, territoriality and crowding) with privacy regulation mechanisms. 4. Territoriality The phenomenon territoriality is extremely widespread in the field of environmental psychology since it consists of many different definitions. According to Gifford (1997) there are different variables that influence territoriality such as; dominance, conflict, security, claim staking, arousal, vigilance, behaviour and cognition to place. Gifford (1997) also states that a formal definition for territoriality is: is a pattern of behaviour and attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a definable physical space, object or idea that may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalisation and marking of it. However territoriality, according to Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) can be defined as: behaviour by which an organism characteristically lays claim to an area and defend it against intrusion by members of his or her own species. According to Altman (1975) territories exist to meet both physical and social needs, while being temporarily or permanently owned, controlled, marked or personalised and potentially defended by occupants or owners. On the other hand, territoriality comprises a specific set of affective, cognitive and behavioural tendencies expressed towards the territory (Altman 1975). Faulkner et al (1994) agrees with Altman (1975), however suggests that territory is a specifically defined area owned or controlled and personalised by defensive boundary markers such as fences, signs, nameplates, or sometimes behavioural cues as simple as a cold stare. Territoriality is linked to self-identity and works in relation to an individuals psychological well-being. According to Proshansky et al (1983) internal determinants of territorial behaviour are to maintain and achieve privacy. Faulkner et al (1994) declares that the concept of territoriality in humans is closely related to the attainment and protection of privacy. Privacy, in turn, releases individuals from various emotional strains and provides a place of evaluation of oneself. 4.1 Types of territoriality Gifford (1997), Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) and Fraine et al (2007) recognize two systems for classifying territorialities: the Altman system as well as the Lyman and Scott system. The Altman system à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" a key attribute to this system is the degree of privacy, attachment or accessibility. Furthermore the system identifies three different types of territoriality. Primary territories: this refers to places that individuals own and which are controlled by them on a regular basis over a certain time and revolve around their everyday lives. Primary territories are seen as an extension of the self in terms of self-identity and self-esteem being related to the area. Additionally, Gifford (1997) states that the psychological importance of a primary territory to its occupant(s) is always high. Secondary territories: this type of territory is not that essential to individuals as the person does not have complete control over the environment and the duration of the occupancy is temporary. A persons desk at the office and a locker at school are examples of secondary territories. Public territories: this refers to areas where everyone has equal rights to use the specific area such as the sidewalk, public bathrooms. Gifford (1997) points out that public territory is open to all outsiders who are not specifically excluded. Fraine et al (2007) points out that primary territories is the most central and enduring, while public territories are the least. The Lyman and Scott system à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this system overlaps with the above mentioned system and in addition identified two more types of territoriality: 1) Interactional territories: this type refers to areas that are momentarily controlled by people who interact with each other such as; classrooms, offices or parks. 2) Body territories: this refers to the physical self as a territory à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" sometimes bodies are entered with or without permission. With permission, is when an individual gives authorisation for someone to enter their bodily territory for instance, with surgery. Without permission, is when entering of bodily territory occurs without the individuals consent such as an attack. 4.2 Territorial behaviour Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) declare that one does not have to look hard to find compelling evidence of territorial behaviour in humans à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" witness for example, the prevalence of locks on doors, fences and NO TRESPASSING signs. Gifford (1997) identifies six types of behaviour humans portray in certain environments. Personalisation and Marking à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this is a type of behaviour which occurs in many different settings such as; restaurants, games arcades and many more which individuals are not even aware of. Personalisation and marking can also be intentional at times such as; No intruding or No tracking. Aggression and Territorial defense à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Gifford (1997) states that territoriality and aggression go hand in hand. Aggression is a type of behaviour that arises under some circumstances such as the protection of ones home in the event of an intrusion or when territorial restrictions are unclear. Dominance and Control à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" dominance is related to the amount and value of territories every individual holds. Control refers to the influence on space, ideas and other aspects in those territories. According to Altman (1975) territorial behaviour must be considered more properly as a mechanism which regulates the borders of the self/other through the process of personalisation or demarcation of places of objects possessed by a person or a group. Consequently, this mechanism is useful for describing the more general process underlying the relationship between persons and the environmental space (Bonnes et al 1995). 4.3 Achieving territoriality in design Gifford (1997) states that territoriality should be analysed in each environment as it is a factor which results in preferring or not preferring an environment. Furthermore, the design of a particular space should try to diminish aggression, enhance control and encourage a sense of order and protection. According to Faulkner et al (1994) symbolic of our psychological identification with our place is our attitude of possessiveness and arrangement of personal objects and furnishings within it. The meaning of our place suggests that it is a place where we as individuals often feel we can wield control over, be innovative, communicate our individuality to others, feel protected and secure it from other unwanted visitors. Gifford (1997) further suggests that individuals are unlikely to alter furniture or other arrangements in public territories because they do not see them as their own, even when no one else claims the space as a primary territory. Demirbas and Demirkan (2000) declare that many people place personal belongings in an environment to define their territory. References ALTMAN, I. 1975. The environment and social behaviour. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole. BECHTEL, R.B., CHURCHMAN, A. TSERTSMAN, A. 2002. Handbook of environmental psychology. John Wiley and Sons. 722p. BELL, P.A., GREENE, T.C., FISHER, J.D. BAUM, A.S. 2005. Environmental psychology. 5th ed. Routledge. 634p. BONNES, M. 2003. Review of environmental psychology: principles and practices. 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Users privacy preferences in open plan offices. Emerald Group. 26, 401-417. DIXON, J. DURRHEIM, K. 2000. Displacing place-identity: a discursive approach to locating self and others. British journal of social psychology. 39, 27-44. FAULKNER, R., FAULKNER, S. NISSEN, L. 1994. Inside todays home. 6th ed. Thompson learning: Wadsworth. 672p. FRAINE, G., SMITH, S.G., ZINKIEWICZ, L., CHAPMAN, R. SHEEHAN, M. 2007. At home on the road? Can drivers relationships with their cars be associated with territoriality? Journal of environmental psychology. 27, 204-214. GARLING, T. GOLLEDGE, R. 1993. Behavior and Environment: Psychological and Geographical Approaches. Amsterdam: North Holland. GIFFORD, R. 1997. Environmental psychology: principles and practices. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 504p. GOODCHILD, B. 1997. Housing and the urban environment: a guide to housing design. Blackwell Science. 330p. GRITZALIS, S., KARYDA, M., PARK, H.J., KOKOLAKIS, S. 2009. Privacy and fair information practices in ubiquitous environments. Emerald group. 19, 194-208. HALPENNY, E. 2005. Pro-environment intentions: examining the affect of place attachment, environmental attitudes, place satisfaction and attitudes toward pro-environmental behaviour. Canadian association of leisure studies. 1-6p. HARRIS, P.B., WERNER, C.M. BROWN, B.B. 1996. Privacy regulation and place attachment: predicting attachment to a student family housing facility. Journal of environmental psychology. 16, 287-301. HARRIS, P.B., WERNER, C.M., BROWN, B.B. INGEBRITSEN, D. 1995. Relocation and privacy regulation: a cross-cultural analysis. Journal of environmental psychology. 15, 311-320. HAUGE, A.L. 2007. Identity and place. Journal of environmental psychology. 1-10. HÃÆ'–LSCHER, C., BÃÆ'Å“CHNER, S.J., MEILINGER, T. STRUBE, G. 2009. Adaptivity of wayfinding strategies in a multi-building ensemble: the effects of spatial structure, task requirements and metric information. Journal of environmental psychology. 29, 208-219. HÃÆ'–LSCHER, C., MEILINGER, T., VRACHLIOTIS, G., BRÃÆ'–SAMLE, M. KNAUFF, M. 2006. Up the down staircase: wayfinding strategies and multi-level buildings. Journal of environmental psychology. 26, 284-299. IACHINI, T., RUOTOLO, F. RUGGIERO, G. 2009. The effects of familiarity and gender on spatial representation. Journal of environmental psychology. 29, 227-234. INALHAN, G FINCH, E. 2004. Place attachment and sense of belonging. Emerald group. 22, 120-128. KAPLAN, S. R. KAPLAN. 1982. Cognition and Environment. NY: Praeger. KEENAN, K.M. 2005. Invasion of privacy: a reference handbook. ABC: Clio. 259p. KENT , S. 1993. Domestic architecture and the use of space: an interdisciplinary cross-cultural study. Cambridge: University press. 192p. KNEZ, I. 2005. Attachment and identity as related to a place and its perceived climate. Journal of environmental psychology. 25, 207-218. MALGULIS, S.T. 2005. Privacy and psychology. Normative, psychological and social perspectives. Journal of environmental psychology. 1-26p. MARSHALL, N.J. 1972. Privacy and environment. Journal of human ecology. 93-110. MILLIGAN, M. 1998. Interactional past and potential. Symbolic interaction. 21, 1-33. NDUBISI, F. 2002. Ecological planning: a historical and comparative synthesis. Center for American places. 287p. PASSINI, R. 1984. Spatial representations, a wayfinding perspective. Journal of environmental psychology. 4, 153-164. PAYTON, M.A. 2003. Influence of place attachment and social capital on civic action. Journal of natural resources. 93. PEDERSON, D.M. 1999. Model for types of privacy by privacy dimensions. J ournal of environmental psychology. 19, 397-405. PRESTOPNIK, J.L. ROSKOS-EWOLDSON, B. 2000. The relationship among wayfinding strategy use, sense of direction, sex, familiarity and wayfinding ability. Journal of environmental psychology. 20, 177-191. PRETTY, G.H., CHIPUER, H.M. BRAMSTON, P. 2003. Sense of place amongst adolescents and adults in two rural Australian towns: the discriminating features of place attachment, sense of community and place dependence in relation to place identity. Journal of environmental psychology. 23, 273-287. PROSHANSKY, H.M. 1987. The field on environmental psychology: securing its future. Handbook of environmental psychology. New York: John Wiley Sons. PROSHANSKY, H.M., FABIAN, A.K. KAMINOFF, R. 1983. Place-identity: physical world socialisation of the self. Journal of environmental psychology. 3, 57-83. RELPH, E. 1976. Place and placelessness. London: Pion. SALMI, P. 2002. Wayfinding design: hidden barriers to universal access. Implications. Info rma designs. 6p. SHUMAKER, S.A., TAYLOR, R.B. 1983. Towards a clarification of people-place relationships: a model of attachment to place. Environmental psychology: directions and perspectives. 219-251p. SPIERS, H.J., MAGUIRE, E.A. 2008. The dynamic nature of cognition during wayfinding. Journal of environmental psychology. 28, 232-249. VEITCH, R. ARKKELIN, D. 1995. Environmental psychology: an interdisciplinary perspective. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. 461p. WESTIN, A. 1970. Privacy and freedom. New York: Atheneum. 487p. WARZECHA, C.A., LIME, D.W. THOMPSON, J.L. 2000. Visitors relationship to the resource: comparing place attachment in wildland and developed settings. Journal of natural resources. 4, 1-15.

Effective Appraisal Approaches And Its Influence On...

In business, the word of investment can be defined as the outflow of money for the purchase of valuable item with an expectation of positive future return or the purchase of equipment or inventory by owner in order to improve future business. (Kahraman, 2011) Moreover, the part of decision-making preforms a crucial role in business investment that depends upon the investor’s profit expectation, the availability to finance the investment and the potential cost of asset. (Virlics, 2013) However, risk and uncertainty are the basic terms to the decision-making framework. Risk can be defined as the probability or threat of outcomes or loss that is caused by internal or external vulnerabilities where the probabilities of the possible negative†¦show more content†¦(Kahneman Tversky, 1979) It also can be assigned by the probabilities and calculated by taking the average of weight of all possible outcomes under certain circumstance. (Investopedia organization, 2015) To be mo re specific, the expected utility of an act is a weighted average of the utilities out of their potential outcomes, where the utilities of an outcome measures the extent to which that outcome is preferred to the alternatives. The utility of each outcome is weighted depending on the probability of which outcome will it be led to. (Stanford University, 2014) On the other hand, the form of prospect theory is developed by Kahneman Tversky (1992) through a value function (1979), which is defined on gains and losses that related to a reference point, and is normally curving inward for gains, commonly curving outward for losses. Additionally, prospect theory can be defined as a descriptive model of decision-making under risk, which is designed to better explain how individuals actual make choices between different options and prospects. It also evaluates an outcome based on the alternation of total resources and judges by gains and losses that related to the status. (Wen, 2010) Under prospect theory, value is allocated to gains and losses rather than to final assets. Moreover, the investment decision-making is an analogy to the behaviour of

Public Relation Adaptation Plan for Empowerment - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about thePublic Relation Adaptation Plan for Empowerment. Answer: Introduction True in the corporate social responsibility as one of the main benefactor of women health and empowerment, Avon, one of the known brands in womens cosmetics and products launched a Global program known as Kiss Goodbye to breast cancer in the year of 2001. The key objectives of the programs was to create awareness and raise funds to improve provide better support to the cause of breast cancer as well as support for the research of breast cancer cure. Over the last 25 years and with the support of Avons six millions customers, representatives, Avon walkers and employees have donated more than $800 million to the breast cancer causes as well as educating about 180 million women about the disease. Avon is supposed to debut its campaign in South Africa in partnership to the South African Cancer Society. Avon, South Africa launches its own Kiss Goodbye to breast cancer campaign on November 2017. The awareness program will uphold the significance of the campaign stating the significance of awareness and early detection of the disease through celebrities, charitable events, walk for cause and media relations from the different departments of public, private and entertainment world. The fundraising part of the campaign would feature the sale of limited edition lipsticks from November through December until January 2018. Ten South African rand to be donated on every lipstick that is to be sold for the support and welfare of cancer patients and support the cancer research initiative to benefit the South African women and come from the less privileged segregation of the population (Hendrix, Hayes Kumar, 2012). Current situation: The Kiss Goodbye to Breast Cancer campaign by Avon had launched in the year 2001for the first time. The campaign has emphasized on the significance of raising awareness in women and early detection of the disease as the best cure. In Philippines this campaign has collaborated with the Philippine General Hospital Cancer Institute and established a breast care centre there along with purchasing a new mammography machine for the centre. Taking this program to South Africa would require some changes in the policy due to the cultural difference in both the countries. Cultural Dimensions: Individualism This is a fundamental issue that has been addressed in the cultural dimension. The Philippines is a country with a score of 32 which is considered to be a collectivistic society. It indicates that there is a close knit commitment with all the group members and there is a sense of loyalty in the culture as well (Mazodier Merunka, 2012)). On the other hand, South Africa has a score of 65 and it is considered as an individualist society. This indicates that the social framework in the country is loosely knit and most individuals are expected to look out for their own selves (Ijabadeniyi, Govender Veerasamy, 2015). Therefore, this PR campaign should be targeted mostly towards the individual development in place of mass development in Philippines. Power Distance With the score 94, the Philippines is considered to be hierarchical society. People in this country tend to accept the hierarchical order where each person has a certain place and no justification is provided. However, South Africa has an entirely different power distance dimension with the score 49 which indicates that in the hierarchical order, the subordinates are expected to be instructed and expect an autocrat culture within the organization. Mostly it has been found out that with the higher power distance such as the Philippines, the government has a major control on the society, therefore the campaign should also make a close relationship with the government officials. However in case of South Africa, the PR practitioners should not have to take such initiatives. Masculinity Scoring 64, the Philippines is a masculine society that is driven by achievement, competition and success. The managers in such a society are expected to be assertive and decisive. In a similar way, South Africa also scores 63 in this cultural dimension and considered to be a masculine society too. Therefore, in this respect, there will be no such changes in the PR campaign. Uncertainty Avoidance The Philippines scores 44 on this cultural dimension, therefore it has a low performance of avoiding uncertainty. Therefore, it is evident that the country has a relaxed approach while working with the principles. South Africa also scores similar in the dimension, therefore the schedules are flexible, punctuality is not necessary and innovation is not considered to be a threatening approach. However, it should also be mentioned that in such a culture, the individuals may have to work hard for convincing the clients in terms of addressing the potential and urgent issues. Long term Orientation The Philippines has a low score (27) in this dimension which indicates that the country is more normative than being pragmatic. In a similar way, South Africa also scores low (34) in this dimension showing that people have a strong concern in such a society in order to establish the truth. Social Context Filipino women have a higher mortality rate out of breast cancer than any other country. However, it has been observed that they lack in knowledge regarding the significance of breast cancer. On the contrary, in South Africa, around 49.7% women know at least three breast cancer symptoms. However, larger sections of women are still unaware of the disease and its cure. Therefore, through Avons campaign, the PR professionals have targeted the women through the help of television, radio and other print media for raising the awareness. Political Context In the Philippines, the government has started few cancer control programs and cancer control centers. Avons campaign has been critically approved from the public relation industry in the country as well. On the contrary, South Africa still does not have much government support in the public relations industry for raising awareness for breast cancer (Mazanec et al., 2015). Therefore, the PR professionals in South Africa will also require gaining the trust of government officials for making it an official awareness raising campaign. Economic context The Philippines has one of the fastest growing economies in Asia. Therefore, it is much easier for raising any awareness program in the country. On the other hand, South African economy is suffering from different adverse factors. The unemployment rate is higher; therefore raising such an awareness program may face several issues at the initial stage. The rate of breast cancer is also higher in the women coming from a lower poverty line. Therefore, the PR program may face difficulties at the initial stage as these women may not avail Avons lipstick. Therefore, the campaign should make effective steps for targeting all women in the country. Public relations context The Public Relations Society of Philippines has received award of excellence, which indicate that the government is also making effective steps for reaching the general population. However, the scenario is entirely different in South Africa, therefore the PR program should approach to the government officials as well. Target Public: The target audience is mostly the women who are coming from middle and lower income group as the breast cancer rate is higher within this class. The campaign may include local celebrities for gaining the attention of the target group. Media The PR campaign should involve all the available digital media such as television, radio and the print media. Other than that, the campaign should also involve social media for raising more awareness amongst women. Ethical issues: Push selling the lipsticks may be considered to be unethical sometimes, therefore while raising the awareness for breast cancer programs, the PR professionals should ensure that the program should not turn into a mere push selling program, rather it should focus more on the awareness raising program. Objectives The campaign that has been scheduled to make its debut in south Africa would be a twofold program campaign. The primary objective is to create an increased awareness amongst the South African women about the complications and occurrence of breast cancer. The second objective is to raise funds for every breast cancer patient both able and under-privileged as well as fund the research to mitigate the occurrences and create an alternative cure for the disease to diminish the after effects of the usual cancer treatments on the external appearance of women. The campaign is programmed to be operated in collaboration with the South African Cancer Society (Grunig, 2013). The Kiss Goodbye to Breast Cancer is a multiple year campaign. The project is a segment of the overall positioning of Avon as a socially responsible corporate organization that actively supports women health and women empowerment. The reason adopting these objectives being, breast cancer is a worldwide concern and millions of women suffer the aftermath of cancer diagnosis. This initiative has been taken with a motive to help such women in urgent need of both moral and financial support. Strategies The strategies that are supposed to be used are more or less similar to the previous campaign that had taken place. The reason for using such strategies being, the effectiveness and having the potential to grab the attention of the targeted audiences as well as reach to over to a larger segment to spread the message as well as impact effectively. For the optimal impact of the awareness part of the campaign, Avon, South Africa would target the opinionated leaders in the media and shall used known faces as well as celebrities to spread the message amongst the masses. The Avon employees, especially the women would be deployed along with the South African Cancer Society volunteers to have a face to face interaction with the target audiences. The action strategies includes the maintenance of the same corporate culture without making any major change in the approach with regards to the Kiss Goodbye to Breast cancer campaign. The company has already positioned itself as a cultivator of corporate social responsibility since the 1990s. Therefore, it would not be a difficult to establish itself in the advocacy of womens health and empowerment. The campaign is not a do alone project so Avon would be forming collaborations with the media moguls, celebrities, cancer support network agencies and the South African Cancer Society. With this joint venture, Avon would ensure an authenticity in the adopted cause. The communication strategies would ensure a high rate of visibility in the conducted campaign. The communication strategy that would aware about the setbacks due to the lack of effective communication can be achieved with proper implementation and use of strategies to efficiently transfer the message to the masses. Careful selection of the media and the target audience would ensure the success of conducting the awareness program and the campaign. Although South Africa is a diverse country in its cultures and diversity, English is the common understandable language that can be used to propagate the message. In other parts of the region where there are different cultural division, the respective lingual translation can be helpful for understanding the campaign message and the awareness program. It should also be taken into consideration that the effective knowledge in the language does not necessarily means the possession of effective subject knowledge, in this case knowledge about bre ast cancer. The precise and medicated terminologies that are to be used should be made by bout knowledgeable as well as well communicative health workers, who are to be accompanied by the Avon employees to explain and discuss about the purpose of the campaign and its advantages. Tactics The effective tactics that can be used in this campaign is to use the celebrities and well recognized faced in the television who are going to support the campaign all throughout the three months long duration. The special celebrity endorse products with specific and customized designs related to use of attractive colors, mostly pink can be used to attract the attention of the masses. The redesigning of the fliers with effective message in catchy phrases and added on colors would ensure a better customer reach. Catch lines such as A LIPSTICK can change your life, would be helpful to keep a ambiguity and curiosity amongst the masses, who would be eager to know more about the matter in concern. Effective knowledge dispersion related to the self-examination methods can be well illustrated since the methods are similar and do not have much change in nature. Evaluation However, no formal evolution method can be conducted except for the feedback form that can be used to understand and analyze the effectiveness of the entire campaign conducted by Avon. Although, the Avon South African senior public relations manager can do look forward to check the effective dispersion of the message and the campaign as well as the efficient use of the medium of propagation. This evaluation can be done to understand and analyze the necessary changes that can be done on the same campaign, in the future. References Grunig, J. E. (Ed.). (2013).Excellence in public relations and communication management. Routledge. Hendrix, J. A., Hayes, D. C., Kumar, P. D. (2012).Public relations cases. Cengage Learning.. Ijabadeniyi, A., Govender, J. P., Veerasamy, D. (2015). The Influence Of Cultural Diversity On Marketing Communication: A Case Of Africans And Indians In Durban, South Africa.International Business Economics Research Journal (IBER),14(6), 869-882. Mazanec, J. A., Crotts, J. C., Gursoy, D., Lu, L. (2015). Homogeneity versus heterogeneity of cultural values: An item-response theoretical approach applying Hofstede's cultural dimensions in a single nation.Tourism Management,48, 299-304. Mazodier, M., Merunka, D. (2012). Achieving brand loyalty through sponsorship: the role of fit and self-congruity.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,40(6), 807-820.

Practical strategies of college Administration an Example of the Topic All Posts by

Practical strategies of college Administration I am an administrator in college. The college is vast and with organized structures. As an administrator. I work with many colleagues and supervisors from different structures of the school system. Some of the structures include: The transport system, food and nutrition, hospital, parents, student board and staff of other school. Every year we admit new students as others graduate. To make the life of the students good, we have discussed with my colleagues and seen that effective inclusion of the community in these structures will be needed for better results. Need essay sample on "Practical strategies of college Administration" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Initially, this is the situation of my working place which I will call school. New students arriving in the college without experience and are not orienyted into the system. Sudents with inability studying together with the healthy students and in the same classroom set up. Racism is practiced in my school by both colleagues and students. A school is an example of an open system because it works with the community to produce desired out come. Incorporation of the community in problem solving is therefore important. With my colleagues, we came up with solutions for the transport problem. A community committee is formed, consisting of potential men and women in the community who own vehicles. They would then sign a memorandum of understanding to transport students from home to school and from school to home at a fixed and affordable price. The community members and student must then observe punctuality. As far as co-curricular travel is concerned the school should buy enough buses to transport students during the field trips. Old buses should be replaced with new ones to avoid accidents. The community vehicles should also be road worthy. The drivers should observe all traffic rules. We also suggested that flyovers and bumps should be constructed to reduce road accidents. Repair of the school roads was also to be effected. As we addressed the disability and racism problem. We saw a need to change the teaching technique of the disabled student following techenques of Eibe and Harold in (Eibe .w and Harold .J ,( 2000) P 91). They ought to receive special education, other than study in the regular classroom setting. We came up with a grouping, which would categorize the disabled students into manageable groups. They were; the mentally retarded, those with hearing impairment, the ones with vision impairment, with speech or language impairment, with serious emotional disturbance, autism, deaf-blindness, traumatic brain injury, specific learning disability, orthopedic impairment and other health impairment or multiple disability to enable effective study. To involve effective community involvement in the community contributes funds to build more toilets and pavements for the disabled in the school. Trained drivers who can drive the small three-wheeled car locally known as the tuck from the community are employed by the school to transport the disabled community from one lecturer hall to another. The racism problem should also be solved with the help of the community. The community should encourage the students to live as one by example. That is by the community acting as a role model. Also document conversion services such as book son tape ' digital audio and electronic formats should be made available for the disabled in the library. The parents in the community are challenged to encourage the disabled student and have an open dialogue on all matters. The community would support the disabled student in education continuity through giving financial aid and scholarship opportunities. Interpreting services for the deaf students. Interpreters should be able to offer sign language interpretation in ASL, PSE and ENGLISH. Options for assessing parking for students with permanent disabilities should be established in the school. All these services that we have lined up are supposed to make the life of the disabled students comfortable in the college . What happens at home affects a student experiences at school and what happens at school can affect a student peer relationships outside the school. Therefore, the inter-relationship between the working place, which is the school, and the community is vital for good performance. Statistics from the public health service show that at least 75 percent the proportion of people aged ten and older discuss issues related to nutrition, safety and health with family members. Family no matter how loosely attached to it members is initiated, maintained and altered over time. It is where risk factors tend to cluster and in most cases members share genetic history. Family is also the most basic consumer unit for food products and services that influence heath status. It is therefore the major source of streets and social support. Research on the family impact on health provides empiric evidence that family patterns influence such conditions as coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, mental disorders, childhood illness and depression. However, statistics also show that family members have encouraged behavior change to the better. For example 31 present of the married women have helped their husbands to quit bad eating methods. On the other hand, 49 percent of the male population has contributed in their wives weight cut down. Family therefore can be incorporated in effective community involvement in my work place that is the school. This can be done through holding meetings to teach family members on how to positively impact the students hence better outcome as far as behavior change and results are concerned. Mothers are also encouraged to breast-feeding infants up to the age f four to six months. Of age to encourage body immunity and health body in the futures. The problem of health and habits can be solved by introducing health education which showed also be incorporated in the curriculum and taught to the students. Properly designed and implemented school health education programs can be effective in preventing risk behavior. The effectiveness of these programs is influenced by the amount of classroom time devoted to the program, the extent to which school administrators supported the program and the extent to which teachers are prepared and motivated to implement the program. Other aspects of the school environment that is also important to the school health. Are that state and local health departments can work with school to provide a multidimensional program of school health may include school health education, school based health services designed to prevent, detect and address health problems. A healthy and safe school environment, physical education healthful school food services are the factors that make a health student. The college will continue to educate a unique group of traditional and non-traditional students. Many of the students and college serve are unprepared for college level academic and require assistance and involvement opportunities to successfully achieve their academic goals. With the increasing number of community college students who work full time and only attend classes part-time, finding the opportunity to connect and become involved in the college environment is continuing challenge. At the college, effective involvement would occur when students participate in orientation program is receive on going academic assistance and experience a curriculum that connects classroom requirement to workplace relevance of skills. The community can be involved in solving the student's problem by giving advices to the members on behavior and so one. The problem of accommodation can be solved through a practical strategy for developing more effective community involvement in school. The strategy my colleague and I sat down and came up with was to form an association of landlords with rental houses in a radius of ten kilometer from the college. Then strike a deals with them in that they lower the rental fee and allow students to live in them at affordable prices. The school in corporation with the government would pay the fee above the agreed rate hence promoting good living conditions. The landlords are also to provide clean water and sanitation for the students. High security should also be provided and a bleach of any of the conditions the landlords should face the law. The school should also build extra rooms for students to reside in. the school should also divide the large and room into increase room for others. Introduction of double Decker beds was among our suggestion as solution for the accommodation problem. Students with special needs to must get accommodated. They should be given attention and care like washing clothes and so on. The students should receive recreation facilities like a television, which can be placed, in a common room and a swimming pool. In conclusion, in conclusion of the community in the school system is a good and effective idea of bringing out the best in a student. We should practice this strategies for a better tomorrow. The school. In the transport system, the college doesn't have adequate buses to transport students to school. The school roads are in bad shape and near repair. Some students walk to school due to inadequate public vehicles to drive them to school. The hospital system currently has a health nit, which doesn't really serve the student and staff adequately. For students taking vet nary degree, the animal hospital is lacking equipment and enough personnel. This makes it difficult to produce good students for the competitive market outside. Another area in the systemic food and nutrition. The few school cafeteria we have don't feed adequately staff and students in school. There is therefore need to build new cafeteria and include the community. The weakness of the current situation is as follows: Disabled students sometimes do not understand what they are leaning when placed in regular classroom setting. Due to their disability, they also arrive late in classes due to shifting from one hall to another. Moreover they tire quickly and miss some classes. The racially degraded students form a low performance. Due to the transport problems, most students arrive late or worse still miss class. Other students don't attend co-curricular trips hence the study, which would, carried in co-curricular trips fails. Due to gigh traffic they tend to over speed, which causes accidents and loss of lives. The public transport fare is not at a fixed price a time fare hikes and this inconveniences the student and parent. S the school cafeteria is few, some students skip lunch and even breakfast and this causes malnutrition. The food programme and the food offered is not of high nutrients value so it doesn't help the student physical growth and these consequently affect their [performance and health. Areas of accommodation are not safe as they could be in school another weakness of the system is the expensive rent which landlords demand from students. The merits oath system is that it accommodates many students to study. It is less expensive for the administration to run. Students can live in house in large numbers like 4 to raise the rent. My colleagues and I suggested practical strategies for developing a more effective community involvement at our working place. What we came up with, solutions to solve problems in different school structure as strategies for developing more effective community involvement on the school. The school hospital colleagues looked at several problems such as lack of nutrition related services such screening and diagnosis as well as treatment and rfera; l. These were as a result of lack of effective community involvement. A service like screening and diagnosis include food consumption surveys, measurement of body weight and height and blood test. These screenings can assess health and deficiencies and indicators of chronic diseases. The treatment/referral services are based on the result of screening. Schools should have procedures for ensuring that important health problems are addressed. If feeding, the school offers micronutrients supplementation, counseling or deforming programmers, this may be simply a matter of working with students, parents and other school staff to agree upon and implement treatment services. For health problems, which cannot be treated on site, the school should be prepared to refer students and staff to providers of health and other human services in the community. To operate an effective outside referral service, the school must establish good relationships with these other providers (the community) keep information bout their services, eligibility requirements, physical location, costs, hours of operation, contact information etc. p to date follow up with the client and provider to determine whether the problem has been resolved. Nutritional well-being is established by consuming safe foods s part of a balanced diet that contains adequate amounts of nutrients in relation to bodily requirements. Malnutrition is any physical condition resulting either from inappropriate diet or form physical inability absorb or metabolism nutrients. Malnutrition includes over nutrition; more energy food is consumed than expected, resulting in excess body fat and under-nutrition which occurs when not enough total for energy nutrients are consumed, resulting in low body weight and nutrient deficiencies. Malnutrition can be related can be related to various factors such as poverty, infections, which lead in poor appetite and lack of access to food, sanitation and health services. Malnutrition negatively affects the quality of life and learning and can eventually cause diseases and death. Colleagues from the school cafeteria complain of many students turn up for lunch but, but they cant feed them all. The school should therefore look at the community for help. This is whereby individuals from the community can construct other cafeterias for students to feed from them. My colleagues also suggested that the outside cafeterias should offer a variety of health promotion interventions that intergagrate efforts to efforts to ensure students nutritional adequacy. The interventions arccoding to (Bowby , (1995 ) p 155) include micronutrient supplementation and a good feeding programme. The first intervention constitutes supply of micronutrients separately from the normal diet to individuals who are at a high risk of deficiency diseases. These supplements may include vitamin A to prevent blindness, iron tablets to prevent anemia and iodized oil or salt to prevent goiter and mental retardation. The feeding program interventions consist of providing breakfast, lunch and some snack in the evening. The meals should be provided at the right time, in reduced prices so as to increase availability of food to students. The outside vendors who sell snacks inside or near the school property should be encouraged by the school to offer nutritious food choices, which are clean and not expired to encourage the school's health promotion effort. Bibliography: Elementary school Administration by Oscar T. Jarvis Legal issues in school Health services by Nadine C. Schwab. School choice and social controversy by Stephen D. Sugar man, Frank R. Kemmerer The Educator's Guide to Texas school law by Jim Walsh Frank R. Kemmerer, Laurie Manicottis Willard. Elbe and Harold J. McNally, Elementary school Administration and Supervision p.91 New York: American book. . Davis, B. el at.[2002] physical education and the study of sports 4th ed London, Mosby. Bowby, J [1951] Maternal care and mental health.Monograph series,no.2 Geneva, world Heealth Organization.

Tennis Essays (648 words) - Sports Equipment, Racket, Titanium

Tennis Technology Racquet It seems like only yesterday that Prince was introducing the Michael Chang Long-body tennis racquet to the world. It was the first extra-length racquet designed to be a "player's racquet" with less power and more control. The previous extra-length racquets we have seen had huge heads and funky designs. They generated an enormous amount of power and tremendous spin, but they were ineffective with regard to control. The Michael Chang Long-body changed all that. This is the racquet that brought extra length to the masses. In reality, the Michael Chang Long-body racquet has been on the market for about three years. In the computer industry it would be a dinosaur. Although tennis racquets do not age quite as fast as computers, three years is still a long time for a racquet to remain unchanged. What Prince has done is to introduce a new Chang tennis racquet called the Michael Chang Titanium Long-body. The Michael Chang Titanium Long-body is a better tennis racquet than the original. Not only does the racquet combine the qualities of the original Michael Chang Long-body, but it also incorporates Prince's latest technological advances. There are two major technological differences between the old and new Chang racquets. The first difference is the titanium in the shaft of the Michael Chang Titanium racquet, which gives the new version its name. Titanium is braided with the graphite in the shaft of the Chang Titanium which increases the stiffness of the frame and makes the racquet more powerful and stable than the Original Chang racquet.1 The extra stability should appeal to all players, while the extra power will benefit those players who want or need more power. The second difference is the Sweet Spot Suspension System, which the Chang Titanium racquet has and the Original Chang does not. The Sweet Spot Suspension System decreases the vibration by sixty percent and absorbs a lot more shock, especially outside of the sweet spot.2 The Sweet Spot Suspension System is a major benefit for anyone with arm problems or anyone who wants to avoid them. The head size, length, and the width of the Chang Titanium and Chang Original are the same, but the weight differs. Like the Original Chang, the Titanium Chang comes in two head sizes: 95 and 107 square inches. Both the Titanium head sizes are 20 mm wide and weigh 11.3 and 11.6 ounces unstrung. By comparison, the Original Chang Midsize weighs 11.2 ounces and the Oversize weighs only 10.3 ounces. Both the Original Chang and the Titanium Chang are 28 inches long and head-light.3 A disadvantage of the Chang Titanium is the difficulty of maneuverability. Both the Midsize and Oversize frame of the Chang Titanium are less maneuverable than the Original Chang is. Compared to the Original Chang Oversize, the extra ounce of weight and the larger hoop of the Chang Titanium make the Oversize frame very difficult to handle. A player will need to have good strength, great timing, or great preparation to play well with this racquet. A physically strong player will be able to maneuver the frame into position and should enjoy the solid feel of the racquet.4 Good timing and early preparation will be required for the rest of us, because a person has to start the swing very early and, once he starts it, there is no stopping and restarting. The smaller head on the Midsize helps to make it much more maneuverable than the Oversize; however, according to the weight specifications, the Midsize is still less maneuverable than the Original Chang Midsize. The difference, however, is much less significant than with the Oversize frames. Prince's Sweet Spot System decreases the vibration and absorbs a lot more shock, which is a definite improvement over the Original Chang racquets. With the titanium in the shaft, the Chang Titanium makes the racquet more stiff, powerful, and stable than the Original Chang. Chang Titanium is heavier than the Original Chang, but a person who can handle the racquet will exploit Prince's latest technological advances which make it a better racquet than the Original Chang.

The Life Cycle of Butterflies and Moths

The Life Cycle of Butterflies and Moths All members of the order Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths, progress through a four-stage life cycle, or complete metamorphosis. Each stage- egg, larva, pupa, and adult- serves a purpose in the insects development and life. Egg (Embryonic Stage) Once she has mated with a male of the same species, a female butterfly or moth will deposit her fertilized eggs, usually on plants that will serve as food for her offspring. This marks the beginning of the life cycle. Some, like the monarch butterfly, deposit eggs singly, scattering their progeny among the host plants. Others, such as the eastern tent caterpillar, lay their eggs in groups or clusters, so the offspring remain together for at least the early part of their lives. The length of time required for the egg to hatch is dependent on the species, as well as environmental factors. Some species lay winter-hardy eggs in the fall, which hatch the following spring or summer. Larva (Larval Stage) Once development within the egg is completed, a larva hatches from the egg. In butterflies and moths, we also call the larvae (plural of larva) by another name- caterpillars. In most cases, the first meal the caterpillar eats will be its own eggshell, from which it gains essential nutrients. From then on, the caterpillar feeds on its host plant. The newly hatched larva is said to be in its first instar. Once it grows too big for its cuticle, it must shed or molt. The caterpillar may take a break from eating as it prepares to molt. Once it does, it has reached its second instar. Often, it will consume its old cuticle, recycling the protein and other nutrients back into its body. Some caterpillars look just the same, only bigger, each time they reach a new instar. In other species, the change in appearance is dramatic, and the caterpillar may seem to be an entirely different kind. The larva continues this cycle- eat, poop, molt, eat, poop, molt- until the caterpillar reaches its final instar and prepares to pupate. Caterpillars readying for pupation often wander from their host plants, in search of a safe place for the next stage of their lives. Once a suitable site is found, the caterpillar forms a pupal skin, which is thick and strong, and sheds its final larval cuticle. Pupa (Pupal Stage) During the pupal stage, the most dramatic transformation occurs. Traditionally, this stage has been referred to as a resting stage, but the insect is far from at rest, in truth. The pupa does not feed during this time, nor can it move, though a gentle touch from a finger may yield an occasional wiggle from some species. Butterflies in this stage are chrysalides and moths in this stage are cocoons. Within the pupal case, most of the caterpillar body breaks down through a process called histolysis. Special groups of transformative cells, which remained hidden and inert during the larval stage, now become the directors of the bodys reconstruction. These cell groups, called histoblasts, initiate biochemical processes which transform the deconstructed caterpillar into a viable butterfly or moth. This process is called histogenesis, from the Latin words histo, meaning tissue, and genesis, meaning origin or beginning. Once the metamorphosis within the pupal case is completed, the butterfly or moth may remain at rest until the appropriate trigger signals the time to emerge. Changes in light or temperature, chemical signals, or even hormonal triggers may initiate the adults emergence from the chrysalis or cocoon. Adult (Imaginal Stage) The adult, also called the imago, emerges from its pupal cuticle with a swollen abdomen and shriveled wings. For the first few hours of its adult life, the butterfly or moth will pump hemolymph into the veins in its wings to expand them. The waste products of metamorphosis, a reddish liquid called meconium, will be discharged from the anus. Once its wings are fully dried and expanded, the adult butterfly or moth can fly in search of a mate. Mated females lay their fertilized eggs on appropriate host plants, beginning the life cycle anew.

The Effects of Different Structures on Ownership Decisions Essay

The Effects of Different Structures on Ownership Decisions - Essay Example Joint ventures have to be applied in countries where foreign ownership is restricted. Other forms of entry into overseas market are mergers and acquisitions. A merger occurs when an exporter merges with a local company and creates a new unit, while under acquisition the exporting company takes over a domestic company. This research aims to asses the effect of different structures on ownership decisions. According to Raff, Ryan and Stahler (2005), direct exports or Greenfield investment does not change the ownership as it relies on its own assets to produce goods. In the case of M&A the foreign firm acquires the assets of the local target firm and combines them with its own assets but in the case of joint ventures, even though the assets are shared, they continue to choose output independently. Thus the decision to invest in another country would depend upon the extent of investment that the host firm wants to make. This implies that the firm heterogeneity would determine the pattern of foreign direct investment. Research suggests that firms with least assets would not like to disturb the ownership and would prefer to directly export their goods. Firms with highest assets choose Greenfield or direct investment. Those with low assets prefer mergers and joint ventures. Kasuga (2003) clarifies that net worth plays an important role in determining structures and hence the ownership decisions. When the minimum efficient scale for foreign companies is too large, the host firm chooses joint ventures or equity participation rather than wholly owned subsidiaries. The ownership decisions are based on various micro and macro factors as it depends on the host country for support. When the parent firm needs the local partner’s assets, joint venture are preferred. The ownership shares and consequently the profits too get distributed in case of joint ventures. The ownership also affects the degree of technology transfer from the parent firm. Research also shows